Discussion

Main biophysical and socioeconomic constraints to adoption

Farmers in different countries have identified nine main problems that directly or indirectly influence their adoption of Stylosanthes (Table 22):

• Disease;
• Inadequate seed supply;
• Weed competition;
• Fencing;
• Land scarcity;
• Land tenure;
• Lack of capital;
• Labour requirements; and
• Fires.

Table 22. A comparison of Stylosanthes-adoption constraints and issues between countries: the main biophysical and socioeconomic constraints and key issues requiring policy intervention, promotional strategies, or further research.

Disease

The narrow genetic base for forage species in the Nigerian SHZ is a cause for concern, as it is limiting the uptake of the fodder-bank intervention in other agroecological zones and farming systems. Only three stylo cultivars (S. hamata cv. Verano, S. guianensis cv. Cook, and S. guianensis cv. Schofield) were initially identified for use in fodder banks. The situation has been made worse by the fact that two of these are susceptible to anthracnose. Reports that earlier introductions of Stylosanthes in Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, and Mali were susceptible to anthracnose scare off donors, policymakers, and potential adopters. Although S. hamata and S. guianensis cv. CIAT 184 are tolerant to anthracnose, new strains of the pathogen may develop and S. guianensis may lose its tolerance if it is improperly managed (especially in areas with high humidity), thus posing a serious threat to all Stylosanthes-based interventions.

Inadequate seed supply

The low quantity and poor quality of seed are major hindrances to the expansion of Stylosanthes in the SHZ of Nigeria. Seed production in the country is based on only one cultivar (Verano) because of the susceptibility of the other species to anthracnose. In Cameroon, a lack of seed prevents agropastoralists from establishing Stylosanthes for their herds. This is also a problem for extensionists who wanted to develop their own seed-multiplication plots for future use. In Côte d'Ivoire, seed production used to flourish but has ceased there, but Mali now has a successful national cover-crop seed-production program.

Weed competition

When Stylosanthes is established in association with grasses, such as P. maximum, but is not well managed, the legume will be suppressed, leading to a pasture that is dominated by grass and is lower in nutritional value. Also, aggressive and noxious weeds, notably Imperata cylindrica and Sida acuta, invade Stylosanthes pastures, sometimes completely displacing the desired legume.

Fencing

The Stylosanthes technology demands the use of fencing, which is very expensive (70% of the cost of a fodder bank in Nigeria), and local materials require additional labour, which some farmers cannot fit into their already busy schedule. This was a concern expressed by adopters in both Cameroon and Mali. Stylosanthes adopters suffer huge losses, in terms of both herbage productivity and subsequent crop yields, simply because they cannot afford appropriate fencing. This is not a concern expressed in Côte d'Ivoire, as the loan package there covers the cost of live fences of Gmelina and barbed wire.

Land scarcity

In intensively cultivated areas, farmers cannot leave land fallow for even 1 year, so they will find it difficult to include Stylosanthes fallows in their cropping systems unless they adopt other cropping practices, such as intercropping or sequential cropping. This concern is common in Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, and Nigeria but has not been expressed in Mali.

Land tenure

Where land rights are insecure, farmers are reluctant to make long-term commitments to land development. In many places in Nigeria, cattle owners do not have land rights; the land belongs to crop farmers, who have no interest in cattle production (although they do keep small ruminants) and are sometimes unwilling to give their unused fallow land to pastoralists for pasture development. This land-tenure constraint has affected the rate of adoption of fodder banks. The absence of secure land rights, the scarcity of land (as a result of intensive cultivation), and the open communal grazing system are some of the factors inhibiting diffusion of Stylosanthes to agropastoralists in Cameroon. However, land is not a restriction to fodder-bank adopters in either Côte d'Ivoire or Mali, as adopters in these countries own abundant land, sometimes up to 10 ha each.

Lack of capital

The diffusion of Stylosanthes technology to farmers through the Eco-farms Project came to a standstill because of a lack of capital. Also, the high interest rates and restrictions of the loan programs prevent farmers from exploiting these credit facilities. In Nigeria, when the World Bank withdrew its support for the loan scheme operating through the National Livestock Projects Department, the development of fodder banks in that country completely stopped. However, fodder banks are still promoted by other bodies, such as NGOs, and financially assisted extension programs, such as the Agricultural Development Projects. In Cameroon, the very weak initial use of fodder banks was partly due to lack of capital for research and extension. No loan scheme has been involved in the promotion of fodder banks in Mali, but the successful cotton industry provides capital for some farmers, thereby enabling them to buy the required inputs for the fodder banks.

Labour requirements

Each of the study countries was found to suffer an acute shortage of labour, as all available labour is required for subsistence cropping; Nigeria and Cameroon also suffer a shortage of agricultural mechanization, including animal traction. Additional labour is required to include Stylosanthes in the farming system, and this is scarcely available, especially to farmers with small families, or it is very expensive. In Côte d'Ivoire, farmers follow their traditional practice and concentrate on their crop fields during the growing season because of shortage of labour; they neglect the livestock enterprise, including the important task of managing legume-based pastures effectively.

Fires

Burning, especially during the dry season, is very common in most West African countries (especially Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, and Nigeria). Adopters are worried that Stylosanthes pastures reserved for the supplementation of cattle in the late dry season might be wiped out by fire at the most critical time; this makes the investment too risky.

Recommended policy interventions, promotional strategies, and further research

A critical point concerning the long-term sustainability of Stylosanthes is seed availability. Some countries, such as Côte d'Ivoire, import seed at a very high price, and others, such as Cameroon, do not have enough Stylosanthes seed to supply potential adopters. These constraints could be overcome if governments, private agencies, and farmers engaged in seed production enterprises, as is done in Mali and Nigeria, where Stylosanthes germplasm is available on the market in the same way as crop seed is. However, most of the seed farms are poorly managed in Nigeria. Stylosanthes-seed production is currently well handled by the national seed service in Mali; notwithstanding this, farmers should also be trained to produce and harvest their own seed. Appropriate advice on production and storage is needed by the farmers and these agencies. In Cameroon, national research and extension agencies, private companies, and even farmers should establish multiplication plots for Stylosanthes seed throughout the SHZ. Research to explore cost-effective and suitable techniques should be carried out concurrently.

The narrow genetic base of Stylosanthes species is also a problem, one that could be solved by implementing screening programs in a wide range of production domains and by identifying combinations of cover crops that complement each other. Over the years, ILCA has identified other promising species through its screening program. For instance, the best accessions in dry areas, such as Maiduguri (453 mm of rainfall), were C. pascuorum, C. rotundifolia, and Lablab purpureus. For high-rainfall areas, such as Jos and Makurdi (1 300 mm of rainfall), S. scabra and C. brasilianum were found to be the most successful. However, at Bauchi (780 mm rainfall), the best species was still S. hamata cv. Verano (Tarawali 1994). Similar screening programs are already under way in Cameroon and Côte d'Ivoire, and they are needed to complement the diffusion of fodder banks in Mali.

This evaluation was able to identify "best bets" such as A. histrix, which has very interesting features. This legume was found not only to produce high biomass in both dry and wet areas but also to suppress nematode and Striga infestation in crop fields (Weber et al. 1995).

The concept of legume–legume mixtures involving Stylosanthes and other cover crops should be developed, especially if year-round use of improved pastures is envisaged. Mixtures can also withstand drought, disease, fire, etc., better than sole cover crops. Better establishment techniques and cheap and better management practices are needed to guarantee a legume-dominant pasture. Probably the use of legume–legume mixtures, rather than sole legumes or legume–grass mixtures, should be explored through future research. Such studies have just started in Nigeria. They need to be initiated in Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, and Mali.

The persistent problem of anthracnose in the genus Stylosanthes could be overcome by setting up evaluation programs using other legumes for various agroecological zones and farming systems, in case there is a breakdown in the tolerance levels of S. hamata and S. guianensis. The country-wide evaluation undertaken by ILCA–ILRI and its national agricultural research system (NARS) partners in the Recherches en alimentation du bétail en Afrique occidentale et centrale (research on livestock nutrition in West and Central Africa) network is a step in the right direction. Recent reports indicate that this effort has slowed down in Mali, but the concept needs to be reactivated and even extended to new areas and countries.

Land tenure is a key policy issue in need of attention. The Nigerian government should create land-use policies favourable to the Fulani agropastoralists, whose main reason for not adopting Stylosanthes pasture is land-rights insecurity. The provision of grazing reserves for settling agropastoralists in Nigeria is a move in the right direction, but better facilities (schools, hospital, markets, boreholes, etc.) have to be provided to make these environments habitable and attractive. Such an approach is currently taken in Cameroon, where the government is settling agropastoralists on ranches.

Another approach employed by ILCA's farming-systems research team was to make Stylosanthes attractive to crop farmers who own land. Field days for demonstrating the benefits of legumes for crops and the use of Stylosanthes pastures for livestock were organized for both crop farmers and agropastoralists in central Nigeria. These demonstrations led the crop farmers to adopt the fodder-bank technology to improve the fertility of their continuously cultivated soils, as well as the quality of the feed they give their small ruminants (miniature fodder banks). The rationale is that once the crop farmers recognize Stylosanthes as a soil conditioner, they will be more likely to cooperate with agropastoralists who are seeking land to establish Stylosanthes.

Other factors seriously impeding the sustainability of Stylosanthes in West African farming systems are the shortage of labour and a lack of fencing materials to protect the legume against trespassing animals. To alleviate these constraints, the use of animal traction and carts in farm operations should be encouraged, to economize on manual labour, and there should be a complete integration of the crop and livestock sectors.

Adoption of animal traction seems to be weak in Cameroon and Nigeria. Feasibility studies on the introduction of animal traction in one of ILCA's case-study areas in central Nigeria stimulated a lot of interest from the local farmers, who used to hire carts and ox-plows from ILCA to carry out farm operations. The concept needs to be applied in other countries, and it requires further research on appropriate implements, weeding methods, feeding strategies, etc. In Côte d'Ivoire, complete integration of crop and livestock production should be recommended for all Eco-farms. The introduction of animal traction in these enterprises could reduce the labour constraint, encourage further integration, and increase total farm output. For instance, the soil-fertility improvements offered by Stylosanthes and manure from animals should be exploited for crop production. Conversely, residues from crops could be stored and fed to the animals during periods of feed scarcity.

Fencing Stylosanthes pastures or fallows represents 40–70% of the total cost of establishing a 4-ha leguminous pasture when imported metal posts and barbed wire are used. This is exorbitant. These costs could be avoided by using live fences, so research on the identification and establishment of suitable live fences should be pursued vigorously. The agroforestry divisions of national programs, such as CMDT, and the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) should be able to recommend some promising species and better establishment methods. Alternatively, in countries where villagers are penalized by local custom and law if their animals damage crops, Stylosanthes could be protected, especially during the growing season, if farmers planted it within their crop fields. This innovation was demonstrated in southern Mali by a farmer who planted 2 ha of Stylosanthes in the middle of his cotton field; at the end of the growing season, he allowed his traction animals to graze the improved pasture. Another way of reducing the risk of damage to Stylosanthes by roaming village animals is to educate the community on the beneficial effects of the legume so that people give it the same respect and protection as they do other crops, which may also indirectly alleviate the problem of deliberate burning.

Using live fences — such as Newbouldia, Ficus, Gmelina, Euphorbia, citrus, and cashew — around farms is already in the culture of the farmers in all four countries. This suggests that the farmers may be willing to try fencing materials identified by researchers through the screening programs. Where animal traction is already well established (that is, in Côte d'Ivoire and Mali), fences are needed to prevent the animals from eating the Stylosanthes fields. Live fences should be promoted for this because they are cheaper than metal.

Indiscriminate burning of bush, especially during the dry season, should be banned through national legislation, and local strategies to implement controls should be developed. None of the four countries has so far adopted such a policy, which might deter the destruction of rangelands and make feed available for starving animals. Owners of Stylosanthes pastures should be encouraged to construct fire breaks at the onset of the dry season. This is a common practice in Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, and Nigeria for very large fodder banks (about 4 ha). Firebreaks are unnecessary in Cameroon for Stylosanthes plots used in intensively cultivated areas to promote dairy production.

Some of the Stylosanthes packages developed in certain countries are very capital intensive, and in most cases they are beyond the reach of small-scale farmers. Governments and development agencies could alleviate this problem by developing appropriate, low-interest loan schemes. A loan scheme sponsored by the Nigerian government and the World Bank promoted the diffusion of the Stylosanthes technology among the smallholders in the SHZ of Nigeria. Farmers in the Eco-farms project in Côte d'Ivoire now benefit from a funding scheme jointly provided by the Ivorian government, ADB, and GTZ. Such loan schemes are especially recommended for Cameroon and for all other West African countries where Stylosanthes-based technologies are capital intensive and peasants cannot afford the inputs.

Maximum benefits from Stylosanthes-based strategies to improve feed sources and soil can be realized in profitable enterprises, such as those with dairy herds or cash crops. Incidentally, research and extension activities for these enterprises are currently promoted in all four of these West African countries. In addition, the ILRI (formerly ILCA) has formed the Cattle, Meat and Milk Network to promote these enterprises, not only in West Africa but also on the continent as a whole.

Conclusions

Stylosanthes has the potential to improve feed sources, reclaim land, and control noxious weeds (especially Striga). These benefits are very important to both livestock and crop production in subhumid West Africa. Farmers can integrate the legume into their farming systems by growing Stylosanthes fallows or pastures in rotation or association with food or cash crops. Such a mixed-crop–livestock scenario could contribute to sustainable food production in West Africa. From this study, it can be seen that progress has been made in this direction, especially in the SHZs of Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, and Nigeria. Further testing and promotion seems warranted in Cameroon and SHZs of the region.

Information is available in both national and international research institutes to address the information gaps and assist in defining appropriate research and extension programs for farmers. For instance, ILRI–ILCA (de Leeuw et al. 1994; Tarawali et al. 1996) has undertaken extensive herbaceous-legume evaluations, including Stylosanthes-based mixtures, and animal evaluations. IITA and WARDA have information on the performance of cover crops (biomass, N accumulation, weed suppression, ecological adaptation, etc.) and soil management (Akobundu 1990; Tian et al. 1995; Sanginga, Ibewiro et al. 1996; Becker, personal communication, 1997(1)). ICRAF–Alley Farming Network for Tropical Africa (Atta-Krah 1987; Cobbina et al. 1990; Ladipo 1993; Kang et al. 1995) has many exotic and indigenous collections of trees that can be used as cheap fencing material. These institutes have several bases in West Africa. NGOs and NARS are also gaining experience that should be exchanged and acted on.

Acknowledgments

This study was made possible by financial support from the International Development Research Centre, for which the authors are grateful. Our sincere thanks also go to Dr Daniel Buckles for all his guidance and support during the development of the case study.

The contribution of the Nigerian government, the World Bank, and our NARS counterparts to the development and adoption of the Stylosanthes technology in Nigeria is very much acknowledged. The authors are very grateful to IRZ, Yaounde, Cameroon, and especially to J. Kounmenioc and former country representative of HPI, M. Nuwanyakpa, for all their useful suggestions. We thank E. Mill, M. Kaligha, and A. Touré of the GTZ–NASRD project, Côte d'Ivoire, for their enormous contributions to this research. We also thank Matthias Becker of WARDA for his suggestions and for facilitating the data collection in Côte d'Ivoire.

The authors acknowledge with thanks the management of CMDT and DRRPS for all the support provided in Mali. We also extend our gratitude to the CMDT regional directors and farmers for all their patience in responding to our inquiries and attending to us during field visits. Special thanks are due to M. Bengaly, Bertus Wennink, and Thea Hilhorst for their contributions to the discussions and for providing literature. The facilitating role of S. Debrah, Team Leader of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Mali, was appreciated during the research in Mali.

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